Chapter 9: A Couple Guys with Guns
Between 1918 and 1933 the United States produced only 35 tanks and no two of them the same model.
- The Big 'L'
Specifically it lacked motorized equipment essential to rapid transportation of troops: the Army still moved almost entirely on foot. Its mechanized combat equipment was limited principally to tanks, and these (with the exception of a handful of test units) were the obsolete World War I stocks with a maximum speed of 4 to 5 miles per hour and highly vulnerable armor. The infantry rifle was still the Springfield 1903 bolt action model: as of 30 June 1934 the Army possessed only 80 semiautomatic rifles.
- R Elberton Smith, The Army and Economic Mobilization, Page 124
1933 and 34 were slow years for the Army. Their officer corps was either running normal duties on a skeleton crew, organizing throngs of unemployed men to plant trees, dig ditches and build bridges or training as a new hire.
West point would increase its authorized strength to 2040 to cope with the new demand for officers though it wasn't the only academy to expand. The Army Industrial College's graduating class of 1925 might have had only had 9 graduates, but its numbers expanded to 43 by 1933 including Major Dwight Eisenhower the chief military aid of Douglass MacArthur. The College would continue to grow as 6,000 new officers were demanded by Roosevelt, reaching a size of 103 by 1935.
Despite their apparent increased budget, bickering in congress and elsewhere had siphoned most of the Army's new funding to the Navy. MacArthur would have his extra officers but there would be expansions in the regular army nor new equipment to buy.
Where the Army was sullen, the Navy was ecstatic with their gains to do what they wished with.
US Navy Budget by year:
1928: $348,332,000
1929: $383,143,000
1930: $364,693,000
1931: $399,243,000
1932: $347,199,000
1933: $593,927,000
1934: $411,433,000
1935: $406,296,000
In 1933, the United States Navy found itself constrained by the limits imposed by the London Naval Treaty of 1930. The treaty, signed by the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, France, and Italy, set restrictions on the total tonnage and construction of warships in an effort to prevent a naval arms race.
Under the treaty, the United States was limited to the following tonnages:
Battleships: 525,000 tons: The US possessed 525,850 tons, slightly over the limit.
Aircraft carriers: 135,000 tons: The US had 76,800 tons of carriers, making it an area with room for significant build out which the Navy would make use of.
Heavy cruisers: 180,000 tons : With 149,753 tons the US was close to the limit but more ships could be constructed.
Light cruisers: 143,500 tons : 67,050 tons of light cruisers made it another area ripe for construction.
Destroyers: 150,000 tons: The US significantly exceeded the limit with 192,190 tons.
Submarines: 52,700 tons: The US slightly exceeded the submarine tonnage limit at 54,421 tons.
While the U.S. Navy was mostly compliant with the treaty limits, it was apparent that the fleet was aging and in need of modernization. Many of the battleships and cruisers dated back to World War I or earlier, and had lots of room to upgrade their means of propulsion and fire control systems among other things.
Traditional steam turbine designs would be replaced with geared turbines, high pressure steam plants and even diesel engines in the case of certain submarines and auxiliary ships. Some experiments were done with electric drive systems where electricity would be generated with a steam or diesel turbine and then used for the propellers but the technology would not be in wide use.
Mechanical computers such as the Mark I Fire Control Computer would be introduced to many of the Navy's ships. These Rangekeepers could predict the future position of a moving target based on its current speed and direction, allowing for more accurate gunfire. Optical rangefinders were upgraded, with longer baseline rangefinders being installed. These provided more accurate distance measurements, which were crucial for effective fire control. The incorporation of gyroscopic stabilization in fire control systems helped to counteract the effects of the ship's movement due to sea conditions. This stabilization ensured that the fire control solutions remained accurate even in rough seas.
Prior to the 1930s, individual gun turrets or batteries were often controlled locally by their own crews. Each turret would independently track and aim at targets based on their own observations and calculations. This method, while functional, led to inconsistencies and inefficiencies, especially when multiple turrets needed to engage the same target. The introduction of director control systems centralized the targeting process. A director is a specialized optical sighting device mounted in a high position on the ship, usually on the superstructure, providing an unobstructed view. The director would track the target and provide continuous updates on its position and movement.
In addition to general modernization the Navy would to engage in a massive carrier building program to approach the 135,000 ton limit laid down by the 1930 London Naval Treaty. In addition to the USS Yorktown and USS Enterprise which had been laid down in early 1934, the USS Wasp would begin construction in November and the USS Hornet in March of 1935.
Existing shipyards were expanded, and new ones were built to accommodate the construction of modern warships. This included the installation of new dry docks, cranes, and other heavy machinery to handle larger and more complex vessels. Shipyards were equipped with more advanced tools and technologies to improve efficiency and precision in shipbuilding and repairs. This included the introduction of welding techniques over traditional riveting, which allowed for stronger and lighter hulls.
Finally research and development efforts would have enough allocated to them that the Bureau of Ordnance would be able to test live torpedoes, if only a couple times a year. In October 1934, Robert Morris Page would create a device able to detect a plane a mile away over the Potomac following Albert H. Taylor's suggestion to Leo C. Young to pulse radio waves.
In 1935, the United States Army, flush from the return of its many officers in CCC camps, began an extensive set of training exercises during its summer season. 15,000 men would be shipped north of Yellowstone where they would participate in what was dubbed the Montana Maneuvers.
Beginning on July 10th, the Red and Blue Armies would face off with the goal of testing the impact of rough terrain on motorized logistics over longer periods of time. The use of trucks was quickly overshadowed as the temperature continuously climbed day after day. The 10th had a high of 83 degrees, the 11th 91, the 12th 97, the 13th 99 and the 14th would reach a blistering 108 forcing the maneuvers to be called a day early. The troops were thoroughly unprepared for such a high temperature in Montana and action died down even before the halt was called.
Phase 2 would last from the 22nd to the 27th which was thankfully cooler. Lieutenant Colonel George Patton would lead the 3rd Squadron of the 3rd Cavalry Regiment along the Yellowstone River and up through Slough Creek in an effort to arrive behind Blue Army. Almost half the trucks taken with him had ran out of fuel or become stuck by the time they arrived due to excessive leakage from gasoline containers, improper planning and poor terrain. Trucks which were left behind would have their crew split in two, with most staying back for a possible refuel and defense while some would continue marching before the horses or even catch a ride on vehicles that remained, often hanging on the side.
Once they arrived, the hanger-ons would split off from the supply trucks and act as extra infantry to supplement the horse riders and the handful of mechanized troops. Despite causing much damage to the back ranks of Blue Army, Patton would be hampered by a lack of supply due to the harsh terrain and repeated fuel leaks. After action reports would note this fact and call attention to the poor quality of the US Army's fuel storage that required both a funnel and a wrench.
Though larger at 25,000 men, the Pine Camp Maneuvers would be overshadowed by the Montana Maneuvers for their innovative use of motorized dragoons pioneered by Patton two decades prior in the Pancho Villa expedition.
It wasn't only the Regular Army which heightened the size of its training. The California National Guard would hold the largest field maneuver in its history on July 14th, 1935.
The Northern Army, the "Blue Forces", led by General Wallace A. Mason of San Francisco clashed with the "Red Forces", under the command of Walter P. Story of Los Angeles. The objective of the Red Forces was to capture the River from the Blue Forces, and once captured, it was imperative that this strategic territory be held.
Even though one of the main military objectives of these maneuvers was to train the motor transport detachments in the moving of regiments, the more serious object of this practice war was to train the soldiers in military combat strategy both necessary skills of warfare.
Before leaving Camp San Luis, the troops and their commanders were warned to be especially careful not to do any damage to private property in the area, as there were no funds available to pay for damages. Any damages caused by the troops would have to be paid for from the organization's funds or assessed against the persons responsible.
The soldiers were also warned to take necessary precautions to avoid contact with poison oak and to watch out for rattlesnakes.
In all, 12 station wagons and 119 trucks were used to transport the troops to this great battle site on the river.
When the Blue Army finally dug in on the Mesa after a two-day forced march from Camp San Luis, the night was foggy and damp and the soldiers were simply worn out. The men of the Red Army, though, having been transported from Los Angeles by train, were filled with energy and able to quickly get into position after a relatively short walk to the battle site. Other Red Forces came from the San Joaquin Valley via Highway 166.
After spending the night formulating its plans, the Red Army was ready for the assault.
Just before the crack of dawn, when the attacking Reds made their assault on the exhausted Blues, the defending 184th men, dazed and still half asleep, were no match for the aggressive Reds.
Meanwhile, a drive was underway by the advancing infantry to capture Gen. Mason's headquarters in Los Beros. However, a successful counterattack by the 159th stopped the Red drive.
Meanwhile, Pvt. George Hayes of Company E, 160th infantry, one of the Red troops, almost upset the entire exercise by infiltrating enemy territory, and obtaining classified information. After being captured by the Blue he escaped.
To add insult to injury to the Blues, in the course of trying to make his escape, he casually walked up to a high-ranking Blues officer and asked directions. The officer, thinking that Hayes was on his side, gave him directions to the road. Hayes went on his way, but not before stealing the officer's plans and reports, and taking them to the Red Army headquarters.
Both sides fought valiantly but after two days of combat, the war was over. The Red Army was declared the winner when the Blue Army lost the river.
- Shirley Contreras, Santa Maria Times